NERO
Emperor of Rome
Chloe Garbe
Bust of Nero at Capitoline Museum, Rome
Nero's Life
The main Classical sources from which modern historians draw Nero’s life are those of Tacitus (AD 55-120), Suetonius (AD 70-140), and Cassius Dio (155-232).[1] However, none of these sources is perfectly reliable because of when and by whom they were written. Tacitus would have been a young boy when Nero committed suicide; Suetonius not yet born. Each of these sources must be read cautiously, keeping in mind the bias against Nero at a time when his downfall left a power vacuum that led to several civil wars.
Nero was born on December 15, AD 37 as Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.[2] His father, Cnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, was a sadistic nobleman[3]; his mother, Agrippina, was the great-granddaughter of Augustus, a previous emperor.[4] When Nero was three, he lost his father and his inheritance. Agrippina was banished by the emperor, so Nero lived with his aunt for several years, where he was taught by the barber and dancer hired by his aunt.[5] When Claudius was crowned, he readmitted and married Agrippina, who then convinced the emperor to adopt her son in AD 49. Domitius was renamed Nero Claudius Augustus Germanicus.[6] Agrippina wanted Nero as heir to the throne, and when it seemed as though Claudius was favoring his own son, Brittanicus, for the throne, he mysteriously died in 54 AD, possibly by a plate of mushrooms from Agrippina.[7]
Nero was crowned at the age of seventeen, though his consulship was saved until he was nineteen in AD 56.[8] He had two advisors, Seneca, a tutor of rhetoric and philosophy, and Burrus, the commander of the Praetorian Guard. For the first several years of his reign, they, along with his mother, heavily influenced his rule. He was loved by the people, who described him as “a generous and reasonable leader.”[9] He married Octavia, Claudius’ daughter, in AD 53,[10] but also began an adulterous relationship with Poppaea. His mother did not like this, and began supporting Brittanicus.[11] Brittanicus died mysteriously during a banquet.[12] Nero ordered the assassination of his mother in AD 59 and told the Senate that she had been plotting his assassination.[13] In AD 62, Burrus died and Seneca retired,[14] leaving Nero to make decisions on his own.
His life took a major turn at this point. Uninhibited by advisors or his mother, Nero pursued artistic endeavors, such as singing, lyre-playing, and poetry. He divorced Octavia, who was put to death after Nero had married Poppaea.[15] Over the next several years, Nero was a glutton for feasting, sex, and power. All who opposed him were executed or forced to commit suicide. Public opinion of his rule and character was so poor that when a great fire decimated Rome in AD 64[16], many assumed that it was started by the emperor. He blamed Christians.
Nero became a very unpopular leader. Though several uprisings, notably the Pisonian Conspiracy in AD 66,[17] failed, eventually even his own guard left him. The Senate ordered his death in AD 68, and Nero committed suicide on June 9 of the same year, ending the Julio-Claudian dynasty.[18]
[1] “Nero’s Charcter,” http://www.bible-history.com/nero/NERONeros_Character.htm.
[2] B. H. Warmington, Nero: Reality and Legend, (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1970), 13.
[3] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, (New York: Penguin, 1967), 211.
[4] “Nero Biography,” http://www.biography.com/people/nero-9421713#political-demise-and-death.
[5] “Emperor Nero,” http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome/Emperor_Nero.htm.
[6] David Shotter, Nero, (London: Routledge, 2005), 16.
[7] “Nero Biography.”
[8] Shotter, Nero, 16.
[9] “Nero Biography.”
[10] Shotter, Nero, 16.
[11] “Nero Biography.”
[12] Tacitus, The Annals: The Reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero. Trans. J. C. Yardley, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 278.
[13] Shotter, Nero, 17.
[14]BBC, “Nero,” http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/nero.shtml.
[15] Shotter, Nero, 20.
[16] History, “Nero,” http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/nero.
[17] “Nero’s Character,” http://www.bible-history.com/nero/NERONeros_Character.htm.
[18] “Nero Claudius Druscus Germanicus,” http://www.roman-empire.net/emperors/nero-index.html.
An artist's impression of the Colossus Neronis.
Nero's Character
“Roman historians give an unclear picture of Nero;” they probably exaggerate his unsavory deeds.[1] Regardless, it was Nero’s perceived character, rather than his political accomplishments, that ultimately defined him.
It was clear early on that he “had a lively mind, and in addition to his artistic interest in carving, painting and above all music, pursued a course of study which was wide-ranging if not profound.”[2] When he was crowned, he “never missed an opportunity of being generous or merciful, or of showing what a good companion he was.”[3] However, there is strong evidence that he was not acting of his own accord, but was heavily influenced by Seneca, Burrus, and his mother Agrippina, with the logic “that if Nero saw that good deeds made him popular, then he would be persuaded to do more.”[4]
Outside of their influence, Nero soon gave “signs of a naturally cruel heart.”[5] In order to keep or gain power, he had his relatives, Senate members, and several free-thinkers killed or forced them to commit suicide. He gave way to gluttony and irresponsibility, which “soon bridged the gap between private and public matters.”[6] Nevertheless, “he had a natural propensity, further trained by habit, for cloaking his hatred with treacherous flattery.”[7]
Some historians theorize that Nero “thought of himself as an actor off stage as well as on.”[8] His professional career as an artist and charioteer and his lavish banquets suggest that he enjoyed being the center of attention, despite evidence that he suffered from severe stage fright.[9] “Many of his schemes show signs of escapism from a real world which he increasingly disliked; they also suggest, however, a determination to impose his will upon his contemporaries, whatever the cost.”[10]
He likened himself to the god Apollo, even having a 100 foot bronze statue constructed of him in this light, the Colossus Neronis.[11] Historians argue that he did not think himself a god, but was leading the plebes to that conclusion in competition with the God of Christianity, which was growing rapidly. He wanted to gain the public’s favor so he would be deified, like Augustus and Claudius before him, after death.[12]
Without the guiding influences of his tutors, Nero’s character became the driving force behind his reign.
[1] “Emperor Nero.”
[2] Warmington, Nero, 26.
[3] Tacitus, The Annals, 214.
[4] Shotter, Nero, 30.
[5] Tacitus, The Annals, 212.
[6] Shotter, Nero, 30.
[7] Tacitus, The Annals, 331.
[8] R. M. Frazer, Jr, “Nero the Artist-Criminal,” The Classical Journal, October, 1966, 18.
[9] “Nero’s Character.”
[10] Shotter, Nero, 34.
[11]History, “Nero.”
[12] Edward Champlin, Nero, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 132.
Torches of Nero by Henryk Siemiradzki
National Museum, Krakow, Poland
Nero's Accomplishments
During his first terms of consulship, under the direction of Seneca and Burrus, Nero helped make the government “fair and clear,” through abolishing private hearings and trials for treason.[1] In a speech in front of the Senate, Nero “rejected various items of Claudian practice and undertook a return to more traditional (that is, Augustan) ways.”[2] He “gained a reputation for political generosity, promoting power-sharing with the Senate.”[3] Nero’s pursuit of the arts and interest in Greek life later led him to “establish open competitions in poetry, drama, and athletics,” [4] such as the Quinquennial Games, held every five years. He sought to “transform Roman society with an infusion of oriental, Greek, and Egyptian culture.”[5]
Many of the laws he passed were in favor of the plebs of Rome. He addressed issues regarding slaves and ex-slaves, the security and well-being of Italy, corrupt officials, and “disturbances” in Pompeii.[6] After the Great Fire, he helped to rehabilitate those who had lost homes, even opening his garden for public use, and had vital supplies shipped to Rome.[7] He rebuilt the city with “clear direction and urban planning to improve wellbeing of the citizens.”[8] He lowered heavy taxes, presented commons with forty pieces of gold a piece, settled annual salaries on distinguished but impoverished senators, and granted battalion Guards with a monthly ration of grain for free.[9]
He was popular in Greece. Nero appreciated their arts, even actively tried to incorporate them into Roman culture. He visited the country while his own was beginning to fall apart to participate in the Greek competitions and left with over 1800 first place prizes.[10] While there, he granted Latin rights to all Greek citizens and freed them from taxation,[11] an unpopular decision as Rome was already in financial trouble. He attempted to build a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, but the project was abandoned halfway through construction.[12]
After a fire destroyed 75 percent of Rome,[13] Nero needed a scapegoat. He blamed the Christians, which were at that time an obscure religious sect. He labeled the Christians as terrorists, and they were effectively and methodically hunted and killed for years to come. There are reports of Nero using Christians to fuel nighttime pyres “that provided light for the emperor’s garden parties” and as bait in brutal “games,”[14] which began the persecution of Christians in Rome.
Nero’s accomplishments reflected his character and interests. Most of his early political accomplishments can be traced back to those who were directing him. His later accomplishments were mainly social, as this was the realm in which he resided most.
[1] Shotter, Nero, 19-20.
[2] Shotter, Nero, 19.
[3] History, “Nero.”
[4] “The Roman Empire in the First Century: Nero,” http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/nero.html.
[5] “Emperor Nero.”
[6] Shotter, Nero, 19.
[7] Tacitus, The Annals, 357.
[8] “Emperor Nero.”
[9] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, 214.
[10] Shotter, Nero, 31.
[11] “Nero’s Character.”
[12] History, “Nero.”
[13] “Nero Biography.”
[14] History, “Nero.”
Top: Coin featuring Nero and his second wife, Poppaea Sabina;
Egypt, Alexandria
Bottom: Aureas featuring Nero and his mother, Agrippina
Nero's
Leadership Qualities
For the most part, ancient and modern historians agree that, when it came to leading Rome, Nero was ambitious, irresponsible, and neglectful. In fact, he was not much of a leader at all, choosing to “indulge in his private pleasures while allowing the government to be carried on by others.”[1] He rarely worked to keep the country together; his failure to respond to a Gallic revolt is what led to Galba’s uprising, which failed but united a force against the lavish emperor’s rule.[2] Nero spent little effort on political affairs, instead spending time molding Roman society to that of its neighbors.[3]
Between his elaborate parties and futile projects, Nero drained the Roman treasury. To raise money for personal projects, such as the Domus Aurea, he “sold positions in public office to the highest bidder, increased taxes and took money from the temples.”[4] The devaluation of the currency lowered the silver content of the denarius by ten percent.[5] He also “reinstituted policies to confiscate property in cases of suspected treason.”[6] Fortune “made Nero a fool;” he had little financial foresight. For example, in anticipation of a gold mine being excavated, he squandered his wealth. The dig was unsuccessful, and it was revealed that Nero’s source had only dreamed its existence.[7]
As aloof he may have seemed from his role as emperor, he did have a strategy. From early in his career, Nero was taught to appeal to the common people, in order that he may control them later. His public performances, though deemed beneath an emperor, drew a crowd. With the Collosus Neronus, he projected an inflated image of himself in order that it would remain “a unique focal point” for the empire.[8] In a sense, he wanted to “befriend the plebeians who [could] but admire and obey” him.[9]
Because of this, much of his rule was spent pretending to have everything under control. For example, “to hide his concern over events abroad, Nero had the common people’s grain, which had rotted with age, dumped into the Tiber in order to maintain public confidence in the grain supply.”[10] By sending his rivals far away, “Nero sought to cloak his shameful and criminal acts.”[11] When Nero decided to marry Poppaea, he had her husband, Otho, moved to be governor of Lusitania.[12]
Despite his efforts—or because of them—Nero was unpopular by the time of his death. There were several revolts. Nero hunted down the guilty parties while storms and disease ravaged Rome until “homes were filling up with dead bodies, streets with funerals.”[13] Rome fell into civil wars after his death. Nero gained infamy after death, but for the wrong reasons.
[1] Wramington, Nero: Reality and Legend, 27.
[2] History, “Nero.”
[3] “Emperor Nero.”
[4] “Nero Biography.”
[5] History, “Nero.”
[6] “Nero Biography.”
[7] Tacitus, The Annals, 377.
[8] “Emperor Nero.”
[9] “Emperor Nero.”
[10] Tacitus, The Annals, 347.
[11] Tacitus, The Annals, 296.
[12] “Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus.”
[13] Tacitus, The Annals, 382.
Nero's abandoned Corinth Canal
Conclusion
Nero is notorious for his lust, gluttony, and megalomania. His leadership style was indirect; he chose others to lead for him. Instead, he led by example. During his first years ruling, he gained the trust of officials and citizens. The remainder of his ruling was spent keeping or abusing that trust. He was ambitious, but lacked the foresight to follow through with many of his bigger ideas. His accomplishments resided in the social realm; he succeeded in expanding Rome’s appreciation of foreign art, but also in beginning the persecution of Christians. Nero essentially acted with child-like self-interest and insecurities. Under his rule, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended and Rome fell apart. Rome collapsed “in an orgy of sex and violence under an emperor who [seemed] determined to pervert the course of nature.”[1] He was an ineffectual leader.
[1] Champlin, Nero, 154.
Bibliography
BBC. “Nero.” Accessed October 21, 2015. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/nero.shtml.
Bible History Online. “Nero’s Character.” Accessed October 21, 2015.
http://www.bible-history.com/nero/NERONeros_Character.htm.
Biography.com. “Nero Biography.” Accessed October 14, 2014.
http://www.biography.com/people/nero- 9421713#political-demise-and-death.
Champlin, Edward. Nero. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2003.
Eyewitness to History. “Nero persecutes the Christians, 64 A.D..” Last Modified 2000. Accessed October 21, 2014. http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/christians.htm.
Frazer, R. M. Jr.. “Nero the Artist-Criminal.” The Classical Journal, 62. No. 1 (Oct., 1966): 17-20.
Accessed October 24, 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3296636.
History.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. “Nero.”
Accessed October 21, 2015.http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/nero.
Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. “Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus.” Last modified 24 May
2012. Accessed October 21, 2015. http://www.roman-empire.net/emperors/nero-index.html.
Mariamilani. “Emperor Nero.” Accessed October
25, 2015. http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome/Emperor_Nero.htm.
PBS. “The Roman Empire in the First Century: Nero.”
Accessed October 14, 2015. http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/nero.html.
Shotter, David. Nero. London: Routledge, 2005. Accessed October 14, 2015. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost).
Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Robert Graves. New York: Penguin, 1967.
Tacitus. The Annals: The Reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero. Translated by J. C. Yardley.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Warmington, B. H. Nero: Reality and Legend. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1970.